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A Few Good Asian Americans 

By Ji Hyun Lim

These two API officers live within a military culture characterized by mottos like “Army of One,” “Accelerate Your Life,” “No One Comes Close,” and “The Few, the Proud, the Marines.” In this world, Chung and Salansky are in the minority. Asian Americans make up only a small proportion of the enlisted and military personnel in the United States.

The U.S. Air Force Academy reports that out of 55,973 people, Asian Americans make up 2.4 percent. According to Jeff Simpson, an admissions officer for West Point, there are fewer APIs enlisting for the lower ranks of the enlisted corps and disproportionately higher numbers who enter into the officer ranks. For example, APIs comprise less than 2 percent of the army, but 4.5 percent of officers.

While, there is no such thing as a typical Asian American military experience, APIs who serve the United States share a common history. From the fierce patriotism of World War II soldiers to today’s diverse enlistees — many of whom join for the educational benefits — Asian Americans have found a solid place in the United States’ military institutions. And like their colleagues, they must assimilate into the military’s unique culture, and then prove themselves if they hope to move up the ranks.

“This is what the enemy looks like”

Flight Commander Major Sara Salansky is one of relatively few female Asian American officers in the U.S. military.

The bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 1941 marked a period of chaos for the Japanese American community. Some 120,000 Japanese Americans were forced into internment camps. Others, like World War II veteran Wally Nunotani, volunteered to serve in the U.S. military services. The War Department in 1943 authorized the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, a segregated unit, and originally set a goal of enlisting 1,500 Japanese Americans. In an atmosphere of intense mistrust for all young Japanese American men, 10,000 of them stepped forward.

A few months shy of his 80th birthday, Hawaii-born Nunotani can clearly recall his experience as a soldier.

Back then, it wasn’t so easy to assimilate into military culture.

“A lot of Japanese were in suspicion of disloyalty,” Nunotani says. “We had to fight two battles — one against the enemy in Europe and also the battle against fighting prejudice and discrimination here at home.”

A year after Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, the 442nd RCT was assigned to rescue 275 men who were trapped in France’s Vosges Mountain. The regimen “cracked the enemy line,” but lost 30 percent of its troops. The soldiers were sent back to regroup and get replacements. After a day and half, they were sent back.

The War Department declared the battle one of the 10 most heroic battles in World War II history. And for their efforts, the 442nd RCT became, for its size, the most decorated unit in military history. Altogether, the 442nd was awarded with seven Presidential Citations, 10,000 Purple Hearts, and 18,143 individuals decorations.

Once a Minority, Still a Minority

Even with their highly decorated status, Asian Americans in the military have been, for the most part, invisible. San Jose State Asian American studies professor Curtiss Takada Rooks points out that Japanese Americans, Filipino Americans and Chinese Americans have served, but have not always been recognized.

During World War II, more than 20,000 Chinese Americans served in the armed forces. Some 25,000 Japanese Americans trained as interpreters and translators for the Army’s Military Intelligence Service. Filipino Americans and Korean Americans also formed smaller units for the nation’s war effort.

According to Rooks, there was major structural discrimination in the military. In earlier times, Asian Americans were relegated to positions of cooks, butlers or running commissaries.

Over half a century later, some Asian Americans say they are still fighting discrimination. In 1990, Bruce Yamashita was abruptly discharged for “leadership failure” in the Marines. But Yamashita alleged his instructors taunted him, telling him to “go back to his country” and that they didn’t want “his kind” around.

He was reinstated in 1994 after proving that he was the target of racial and ethnic harassment during the 10-week, officer-training program. The Marines offered to commission him as a second lieutenant but he refused.

A report released in 1999 indicated racism in the military was a real problem. A Pentagon study, mandated by Congress and conducted between 1996-97, found that 75 percent of African Americans and other ethnic minorities were targets of racially offensive behavior. After its publication, then-Defense Secretary William Cohen called for a military-wide review of conduct.

Rooks, points out that race can be used in a derogatory way among the enlisted soldiers, particularly in boot camp.

“They could use racial epithets that may fly back and forth in times of stress,” Rooks says. “It happens in white collar jobs as well. The drill Sergeant may say, ‘This is the enemy and this is what he looks like.’”

Chinese American Ken Ru admits that he was “picked on” as a private in the Marines. He knows that some of this flak was because of his low rank, but it was also because he looked different.

Others say such discrimination may be more common in the lower ranks.

Commander Neal Kusumoto, deputy executive assistant to the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, says he hasn’t confronted overt racism.

“You see some discrimination, but it’s by the few ignorant people … You’re going to see that everywhere,” he says. “The military is the leading edge of doing away with discrimination. They lead the way. It’s a much fairer environment than anywhere else.”

Upward Mobility

The military has always been a way for Asian Americans to gain solid economic footing, and in the early days, it was a way to gain citizenship to the United States. Indeed, upward mobility has traditionally been characteristic of the U.S. military.

“The army has focused on [lower socio-economic] groups for recruitment in general,” Rooks says. “That is no accident. They’re looking for people who want a leg-up activity. It does provide for some young folks an opportunity for upward mobility.”

Filipino American Hansel Tomaneng recalls his uncle, Avalino “Tom” Tomaneng, who as an 18-year-old in the late 1960s, enlisted in the U.S. Navy. Upon accepting a position as a U.S. Navy cook, Tomaneng left the Philippines for San Francisco’s Treasure Island. He served over 20 years, became an enlisted petty officer, and eventually gained citizenship.

Tomaneng had another uncle who joined the military, as well.

“[He] would bring back American-made Converse shoes to the family in the Philippines, creating excitement about what military life could offer,” Tomaneng says.

Even today, the military, with its continual promotions, provides a chance to move up, learn important skills and eventually receive a large government pension.

Ru joined the marines to learn to be a mechanic who fixes cars. He also wanted a chance to travel and meet new people. His friend told him that the military could give him the skills he wanted to learn without having to pay for schooling, and get paid while he was learning.

“It was basically a win-win situation,” Ru said.

Military Culture

In theory, the military tries to quash individual identities, including racial identities, contends Rooks. In that sense, the military appears to offer a more even playing field compared to most civilian workplaces.

“Bootcamp is de-humanizing,” Rooks says. “They try to take away the sense of self and to recognize that you’re part of a group. It becomes your primary identity and other things are secondary.”

Adds Commander Kusumoto: “After awhile, you have a way of thinking that is a little different. That’s what you are going to have to adapt to. It doesn’t mean that you are going to be subsumed by military culture, and it does reward individuality.”

Ru, who left the Marines as a sergeant after four years of service, had difficulty adjusting to civilian life. During his time in the military, his mind was flooded with details of inspections, marine history and facts, all of which, he says, displaced many of his old memories.

“They ask you how many inches should be between the pant and belt,” Ru says. “They use a ruler to measure your belt buckle and the tip of the belt [and make you] remember the measurements between the ribbons on your pocket. When they inspect you, they ask about the marine history, who got the medal, how many times, and what happened in a war in a specific year.”

He adds: “The military can make you grow up fast, [but it can also] brainwash you. When I came out, my memory of the past was lost … I had trouble recalling memories with family and friends.”

Thirty-six year old Salansky says that structure is necessary for an effective organization. She was drawn to the military, she says, for its integrity and excellence in service.

“I believe you must do the job honestly, expect those around you to do the best, and put service before self,” she says. “The commonality helps you and you don’t feel alone. I believe that you can’t be as effective by yourself.”

A Matter of Merit

Merit is important and performance tends to be the rule and not the exception. Footsoldiers or infantrymen in the army are in the lowest ranks. As they move up in ranks to supervisors, warrant officers and master sergeants, there is greater mobility and responsibilities.

Said Rooks: “Once one proves himself, it’s possible to gain middle class status. If you hit ten bullseyes, you hit ten bullseyes. It’s hard to dispute that.”

Japanese American Neal Kusumoto has been in the military 20 years, plus four years in the Naval Academy. He decided to join the military because it was going to be a physically, mentally and emotionally challenging career.

“It was a big change from going to Hawaii to the east coast,” Kusumoto said. “You have to sign up for nine years of your life in high school. It’s a large commitment to make as a 17 year old.”

Kusumoto never had negative feelings against the military. His family was never interned during World War II. He says he understood the hardships of war.

“Everyone knows that in the hysteria of war, that’s the wrong thing to do. Japanese Americans proved themselves in World War II. My father and most of my brothers were in the military at some point in their lives.”

Kusumoto says that mobility is based on a fair evaluation from your supervisors. Every year, the commanding officer and selection board members give promotions. Everyone competes with other officers of the same rank and gets promoted based on performance.

“There’s a lot of talented very dedicated people,” Kusumoto said. “There is no sabotage or backstabbing but comaraderie. We are on the same team.”

From Kusumoto’s perspective, someone who works hard, does things effectively, is trustworthy, and has good moral character in any job, stands a greater chance of advancing. Because the military demands long hours for little pay, officers must give a lot.

“Our society continues to evolve. Older and younger people do things differently. There will always be a generation gap but performance equals reward,” Kusumoto says.

Sergeant Chung says APIs sometimes suffer from the stereotype that they are quiet and conforming. He would like to see more visibility for API contributions.

“The military is a good opportunity for travel and educational benefits, but involves sacrifice. Sometimes you have to get there and then you can say, ‘This guy does make a difference.’”